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1. George Washington’s Birthday: How It Started and Why We Celebrate As the first president of the United States, George Washington’s legacy remains strong in the American consciousness, and his birthday is celebrated in a variety of ways. In this article, readers can learn about the history of Washington’s birthday, how it has been celebrated, and why it continues to be observed today. 2. George Washington’s Mount Vernon Home Now Open For Tours George Washington’s Mount Vernon home is open for tours. This article details the history of the mansion, its restoration, and the various activities that guests can partake in while visiting the home. 3. George Washington: The Greatest American President This article examines the life and legacy of George Washington, highlighting his many accomplishments and contributions to the United States. It also looks at the reasons why he is widely considered to be the greatest American president. 4. George Washington: His Life and Accomplishments This article provides an overview of the life and accomplishments of George Washington. It looks at his service in the Revolutionary War, his presidency, and his role in shaping the United States. 5. George Washington’
Edition for Educators—John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts | US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives
John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts remains the only President elected to the U.S. House of Representatives after his service as chief executive. When Adams took his seat in the House in 1831, he had already enjoyed a long career in some of the federal government’s most powerful posts. The son of the second U.S. President, Adams brought a stubbornness and a lifetime of experience to his job as Representative. Adams served for 17 years in the House, representing his Massachusetts district from 1831 until his death in 1848. From both committee rooms and the House Floor, Adams argued ceaselessly against the expansion of slavery and remained steadfast in upholding the right of the American people to petition their government. Thanks in large part to the voluminous diary entries he left behind, historians enjoy ample access to Adams’s various musings and frustrations during one of the most tumultuous periods in House history.Relying on a wealth of material published on the History, Art and Archives website, this month’s Edition for Educators highlights the life and congressional career of Representative John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts.Son, Senator, Secretary, PresidentPEOPLE PROFILE—John Adams of MassachusettsJohn Adams was one of the most famous men in early America. As a Member of the Continental Congress, Adams proposed George Washington to head the Continental Army and helped write the Declaration of Independence. While his new nation grappled with the Articles of Confederation, Adams represented American interests abroad in France, Holland, and England. He returned to the United States in 1788 to serve as the first Vice President under Washington. When Washington declined to run for a third term in 1796, Adams won election as the second President of the United States. Adams, a Boston lawyer of esteem long before joining the Continental Congress, ensured his children received excellent educations. His oldest son John Quincy Adams was schooled in Europe before following his father’s path through Harvard College and into law in Boston and diplomacy abroad.HISTORICAL HIGHLIGHT—The House of Representatives Elected John Quincy Adams as President On February 9, 1825, the House of Representatives elected Secretary of State John Quincy Adams as President. Following an inconclusive Electoral College result, in which no candidate won a majority, the House performed its constitutionally prescribed role of deciding the 1824 presidential election. Andrew Jackson of Tennessee had won the popular vote and commanded 99 electoral votes. He was followed in the electoral tally by Adams (84), Treasury Secretary William Crawford (41), and Speaker of the House Henry Clay (37). Despite Jackson’s lead following Election Day, lawmakers in the House elected Adams President on the first ballot.From the White House to the House of RepresentativesHISTORICAL HIGHLIGHT—The Election of John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts The 1830 midterm election made Adams the first and only former President to be elected to the House of Representatives. Adams sought a second term as President in 1828 but lost to former Representative and Senator Andrew Jackson of Tennessee. Two years later, Adams handily won election to the House to represent a district encompassing southeastern Massachusetts in the 22nd Congress (1831–1833). Prior to the election, Adams reflected on his candidacy for the House in his journal, “no person could be degraded by serving the people as a Representative in Congress . . . [nor] would an ex-President of the United States be degraded by serving as a selectman of his town, if elected thereto by the people.”BLOG—“Planting Laws and Institutions”: The Election of Representative John Quincy Adams On November 6, 1830, former United States President John Quincy Adams spent the day at his family’s farm near Quincy, Massachusetts, planting trees. On the edge of what would become the orchard, he laid out five rows of chestnuts, oaks, and shagbark hickories. Adams ate lunch at home and went back to the farm “to lay out the ground for the Orchard,” all the while debating what else he would plant there. Toward the end of the day, he read the evening newspapers and nonchalantly noted in his diary that the news had “brought the last returns of the Congressional Election for the District of Plymouth. Twenty-two Towns gave 2565 votes, of which 1817 were for John Quincy Adams, 373 for Arad Thompson (Jacksonite), 279 for William Baylies (federal), and 96 scattering votes.” The final line in Adams’s diary that day: “I am a member elect of the twenty-second Congress.”Antislavery CrusaderHISTORICAL HIGHLIGHT—The House “Gag Rule” On May 26, 1836, during the 24th Congress (1835–1837), the U.S. House of Representatives instituted the “gag rule,” the first instance of what would become a traditional practice forbidding the House from considering antislavery petitions. Representative John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts raised the first and most impassioned objections to the procedure. Adams shouted during the roll call vote, “I hold the resolution to be a direct violation of the Constitution of the United States.” For the next four Congresses, Adams fervently fought against the gag rule, declaring it a restriction on free speech. Despite his efforts, the House successfully reintroduced the gag rule each Congress until Adams finally mustered enough votes to repeal it on December 3, 1844.HISTORICAL HIGHLIGHT—A Motion to Censure Representative John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts On February 7, 1842, the House voted 106 to 93 to table a motion censuring Representative John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts for antislavery agitation. Weeks earlier, Adams had masterfully manipulated the public debate over slavery by baiting proslavery Representatives into a prolonged dialogue. Because the House had instituted the “gag rule” in 1836—preventing floor discussion of abolition petitions—Adams manufactured a debate by submitting a petition, allegedly drafted by a group of Georgians, to have Adams removed as Foreign Affairs Committee Chairman. (Historians doubt the authenticity of the petition—some implying that Adams or one of his allies authored it). Through this sleight of hand, Adams used the defense of his chairmanship to hold the floor for days delivering a far-ranging harangue against “slave mongers,” as one observer recalled, “till slaveholding [and] slave trading . . . absolutely quailed and howled under his dissecting knife,” inspiring the effort to censure Adams.“Old Man Eloquent"HISTORICAL HIGHLIGHT—Congressman and Poet John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts A man of many talents, Congressman John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts was a poet as well as a statesman. During his first term as Representative, Adams penned the epic poem, “Dermot MacMorrogh, or The Conquest of Ireland.” Adams once confessed, “Could I have chosen my own genius and condition, I should have made myself a great poet.” Another poem, “Fragments From an Unfinished Manuscript: An Epistle To the Muse of History,” captured a poignant moment in his House career. While seated at his desk in the old House Chamber (now National Statuary Hall), Adams wrote the poem honoring Clio, the Greek muse of history. He was inspired by a marble clock, located over the north door of the chamber, depicting Clio riding in the “Winged Car of History” and recording the deeds of Congress.HISTORICAL HIGHLIGHT—The First Parliamentary Procedure to Limit House Floor Debate On July 7, 1841, the House adopted the first rule intended to limit the time a Representative could speak in debate on the House Floor. Concerns about long speeches impeding House business had dated to at least 1820, when the irascible John Randolph of Virginia held the House Floor for a four-hour speech on the Missouri Compromise bill. This 1841 rule, adopted on the motion of Lott Warren of Georgia, required that “no member shall be allowed to speak more than one hour to any question under debate.” It passed the House by a vote of 111 to 75—with John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts (known as “Old Man Eloquent” by his peers) among those dissenting. Warren’s amendment, however, only temporarily altered the House Rules. According to Hinds’ Precedents the one-hour limit did not become a standing rule of the House until June 1842.BLOG—Father Knows Best Shortly after noon on an unseasonably mild Thursday in late February 1842, a hush fell over the House as the venerable John Quincy Adams creakily arose from his chair. Just weeks earlier, the House had considered censuring the gray-haired Massachusetts Congressman whom many knew as “Old Man Eloquent” to punish him for manufacturing a crippling debate about the evils of slavery. But on this day Adams eulogized North Carolina’s Lewis Williams, whom colleagues revered as the “Father of the House”—the Member with the longest continuous service. The prior afternoon Williams had succumbed to pneumonia. His abrupt passing shocked colleagues and ended an unbroken run of House service reaching back to 1815—far longer than any of his peers in that 27th Congress (1841-1843), Adams included.Mr. ChairmanBLOG—A Mob in Search of a Speaker During the chaotic first two weeks of the 26th Congress (1839–1841) in December 1839, three separate men presided over the House of Representatives: Clerk Hugh Garland of the previous Congress, Representative John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts in an entirely invented position, and finally Robert M.T. Hunter of Virginia, the youngest Speaker of the House ever to hold the office.BLOG—The Apportionment Act of 1842: Legal, When Convenient Throughout his 17-year career in the House, Representative John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts existed in a state of almost perpetual irritation. Whether it was debate over tariff rates or his fight against slavery, the House’s daily business routinely left Adams exasperated but nevertheless resolute that he was right and everyone else was wrong. Adams was in no mood then, when on June 25, 1842, a curious decision by President John Tyler stretched Adams’s already short patience to its breaking point. After failing to convince the House to take up his bill providing back payments to the American victims of French privateers, Adams sat in disbelief as John Tyler Jr., the President’s son and aide, delivered a message to the House from his father explaining his decision to begrudgingly sign the Apportionment Act of 1842.RECORD—Smithsonian Fund Stocks After his death in 1829, British scientist James Smithson left $500,000 to the United States to found an institution dedicated to the pursuit of knowledge. The House Select Committee on the Bequest of James Smithson, chaired by Representative John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts, determined what should be done with the windfall. This House record shows how the United States Treasury used these funds while the select committee worked. The Secretary of the Treasury primarily invested the bequest in the states of Arkansas, Michigan, Illinois, and Ohio, with a rate of interest around six percent. As this record shows, Smithson’s capital temporarily supported the Detroit and Pontiac Railroad Company and canals in Ohio, among other economic and infrastructural projects. In 1846, the Smithsonian Institution was officially created by law.Death and LegacyBLOG—The Last Hours of John Quincy Adams The morning of February 21, 1848, was bright and clear. Representative John Quincy Adams left his house on F Street for the Capitol for the last time. Age had made him frail and a little hunched over in the winter air, but still with a piercing gaze. Adams knew he was nearing the end of his career. But he likely did not suspect that his last hours in the Capitol would become a national media event, driven by brand-new technologies and nostalgia that Adams represented.HISTORICAL HIGHLIGHT—The Death of Representative John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts On February 21, 1848, Representative and former President John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts suffered a fatal stroke on the House Floor. Members moved the 80-year-old former President to the Rotunda for fresher air and then relocated him to the Speaker's Room (the present-day Lindy Claiborne Boggs Congressional Women’s Reading Room). Adams mustered the strength to thank the Officers of the House for their service. He then lapsed into a coma and died two days later. A funeral to celebrate the life of the great sage took place on February 26, 1848, in the House Chamber which was attended by political friends and foes alike. Until arrangements could be made to move his remains to the family burial grounds in Quincy, Massachusetts, his body was laid to rest in Congressional Cemetery. A cenotaph marker remains in the cemetery to honor the former President.Extra ResourcesLearn more about the career of John Quincy Adams as a Senator from Massachusetts, U.S. Secretary of State, and the sixth President of the United States—the opening acts to his tenure as Congressman from Massachusetts.John Quincy Adams kept a diary for much of his life, which is publicly available online through a number of databases, including the Massachusetts Historical Society and the Library of Congress.This is part of a series of blog posts for educators highlighting the resources available on History, Art & Archives of the U.S. House of Representatives. For lesson plans, fact sheets, glossaries, and other materials for the classroom, see the website's Education section.
From Bunker Hill to Capitol Hill: Representative Henry Dearborn and the New Nation | US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives
On April 19, 1775, future U.S. Representative Henry Dearborn, then a 24-year-old country doctor from Nottingham, New Hampshire, heeded an urgent call to arms and marched roughly 60 miles through the night to northeastern Massachusetts to confront British forces at the battles of Lexington and Concord. When Dearborn, one of nearly five dozen New Hampshire recruits who made the long march, arrived at the battle site on April 20, the fighting was over. The British regiments had hastily retreated to Boston after being turned back by colonial militiamen.Two months later, Dearborn, who was in just his third year practicing medicine, had been promoted to captain in the First New Hampshire regiment as American revolutionaries fortified and defended Bunker Hill, the largest of three hills surrounding the city of Boston.The British Army had largely been confined to a peninsula jutting into Boston Harbor, but on June 17 British red coats moved to capture surrounding land—including the hills guarded by Dearborn and his troops. Few had anticipated that this confrontation would lead to the first significant conflict between the rebel army and British troops in the American Revolution.On June 17, Dearborn’s New Hampshire regiment defended Bunker Hill in intense fighting. The Americans inflicted heavy casualties on the British, killing officers and infantrymen with ease from the high ground of Breed's Hill and Bunker Hill in Charlestown, just across the Charles River from Boston. With a larger fighting force, the British ultimately captured control of Bunker Hill but the Americans had won a symbolic victory, showed their mettle on the battlefield, and set the tone for a lengthy war of rebellion that ended with independence in 1783.Henry Dearborn remained in the Continental Army for the duration of the war, attaining the rank of colonel by the end of the conflict in 1783. Nearly 20 years after Bunker Hill, he was elected from the state of Massachusetts to two terms in the U.S. House of Representatives in the 3rd and 4th Congresses (1793–1797). He went on to serve as the longest tenured U.S. Secretary of War in the nation’s history and returned to military service to lead the American invasion of Canada during the War of 1812.Of the many colonists who fought for America’s freedom, Dearborn was one of the few who had been there from the start. He was one of even fewer still who went on to shape the future of his young nation in the halls of Congress. As America commemorates the 250th anniversary of the Battle of Bunker Hill, Dearborn’s unique life helps us understand how veterans of the American Revolution influenced the creation of the federal government in the decades after the war.Eight Years of RevolutionBorn on February 23, 1751, in North Hampton, New Hampshire, Dearborn trained as a physician in the coastal city of Portsmouth. By 1772, he was living in Nottingham, New Hampshire, with his family. Three years later, the Battle of Bunker Hill became the starting point for Dearborn’s long, improbable journey from doctor to soldier to Congressman.Dearborn’s experience in the Continental Army sent him to points along the eastern seaboard where he participated in a series of significant battles during the ensuing eight years of war. A few months after Bunker Hill, in the fall of 1775, he accompanied American General Benedict Arnold in a failed campaign to capture Quebec. Taken prisoner in May 1776, Dearborn was paroled and returned to service the following year, just in time to play a key role in the American victory in Saratoga, New York. In his wartime journal, Dearborn recorded his satisfaction at defeating the “British Butchers,” many of whom he described as mercenaries fighting for wages rather than freedoms. The challenging conditions on the battlefield, Dearborn wrote, did not phase the American soldier, as “we who had Something more at Stake than fighting for six Pence Pr [sic] Day kept our ground til Night.”At the Battle of Monmouth in New Jersey in 1778, Dearborn led a pivotal maneuver to ward off a British attack, and in western New York in 1779, he joined an expedition to attack British loyalists and Native American tribes. Dearborn was also part of George Washington’s forces when they initiated the siege of Yorktown, Virginia, in 1781.Dearborn mustered out of service with the conclusion of the war in 1783, and moved to Maine, which was then a district of Massachusetts and would not become an independent state until 1820. He settled in the town of Gardiner in 1785, invested in land, owned a ferry, and pursued business ventures in timber and construction. He also became enmeshed in local politics, serving as a local selectman. Dearborn was named brigadier general of the district of Maine’s division within the Massachusetts state militia. He rose to major general of the state militia and was named U.S. Marshal for the district of Maine by President George Washington in 1789.A “Full Blooded Yankee” in the HouseIn 1792, Dearborn ran for and won a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives representing the Maine district, what was then the Massachusetts Fourth Congressional District. Dearborn was one of three At-Large Members who represented the district; George Thacher and Peleg Wadsworth, the grandfather of the American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, joined him in the House.Although Congress had approved the construction of a permanent national capital along the banks of the Potomac River, the new seat of government would not be ready until 1800. When the 3rd Congress (1793-1795) began in December 1793, Dearborn instead made his way to the temporary capital at Congress Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.During the early Congresses, partisan affiliations were loosely defined—more blocs than organized parties—and very different than they are today. President George Washington had pledged to remain nonpartisan, but conflicting ambitions in the new federal government had given rise to competing factions. On one side stood the Federalists who, like U.S. Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton, aimed to centralize economic and political power in the federal government. On the other side, stood Dearborn and the Democratic Republicans who, led by Representative James Madison of Virginia, remained wary of concentrated power, opposed Hamilton’s agenda, and backed Thomas Jefferson for President in 1800. Dearborn, described by one observer as “a full blooded Yankee,” believed in a different set of politics than most in the Massachusetts delegation where 12 of the state’s 16 Representatives in the 4th Congress (1795–1797) won election as Federalists.In his two terms in the House, Dearborn’s legislative agenda focused largely on military affairs and international relations. Representative William Barry Grove of North Carolina described him as having a “strong natural sense, and in all a pretty clever man—better fitted for the Military than a Legislator.” But Dearborn competently navigated the amendment process on the House Floor and spoke clearly in defense of his legislative priorities.Appointed to several select committees on military affairs, Dearborn took the lead in assessing the nation’s frontier defense and evaluating the needs of the military. On several occasions he sought to limit military appropriations and proposed reducing the number of soldiers in America’s standing Army. In 1797, he opposed a series of bills designed to bolster the Navy, including measures to fund the construction of three ships, build a Navy yard, and secure access to adequate timber for shipbuilding. Dearborn twice introduced amendments to specify that only the hulls of the ships should be completed to prevent cost overruns. The amendments were rejected and the bills passed despite Dearborn’s vote against them.On international affairs, Dearborn backed several resolutions designed to stop trade with Great Britain and force the British government to comply with the terms of the 1783 treaty ending the Revolutionary War. In 1794, President Washington’s emissary, John Jay, secured a new treaty to improve maritime relations between the nations, remove British troops from frontier lands, and ultimately prevent war. In April 1796, Dearborn and Democratic Republicans tried in vain to kill a bill to fund the implementation of Jay’s Treaty. Dearborn suggested amending the funding measure to add a preamble stating that the House found the treaty “highly objectionable.” The House, however, defeated his amendment. Dearborn voted against the treaty, but the House approved it by a 51 to 48 vote.In 1796, Dearborn lost re-election to Federalist Isaac Parker in his bid for a third term in the House. He returned to the district of Maine, where he was elected to the Massachusetts house of representatives in 1798.U.S. Secretary of WarWhen Thomas Jefferson was elected President in 1800, he appointed Dearborn U.S. Secretary of War. This time, Dearborn’s role in the federal government necessitated a move to the District of Columbia, the nation’s new capital. Dearborn resided on Capitol Hill for several years and retained this appointment throughout Jefferson’s two terms in office.As the civilian head of the military, Dearborn set out to transform America’s defense forces. In collaboration with President Jefferson, Dearborn framed his changes as a way to cut spending and reduce the size of the standing military during peacetime. Democratic Republicans had also grown concerned that Federalists had appointed a class of officers who would perpetuate their control of the military. Dearborn helped devise a plan to enable a new generation of military leaders to gain access to officer commissions—and to appoint those who were sympathetic to Jefferson’s party.As Secretary of War, Dearborn lobbied Congress to implement these changes. He played an integral role in developing the Military Peace Establishment Act of 1802, a complete overhaul of the American military that enabled the Secretary to remove officers, make new officer appointments, and reorganize domestic garrisons and fortifications. The law also created a military academy at West Point, New York, to train officers and develop the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Jefferson and Dearborn hoped these reforms would create a new class of officers more representative of the American people—and more sympathetic to Democratic Republican principles.When Jefferson’s second term ended in 1809, Dearborn was appointed collector of customs at the port of Boston. As the nation engaged in another conflict with Great Britain during the War of 1812, President James Madison asked Dearborn to take control of the military in the northeast, leading troops from the Niagara River east into New England. He led the Army into Canada, seizing the city of York—now known as Toronto—as well as Fort George in Canada just north of Niagara Falls. After struggling to hold these positions, Dearborn was removed from his post in July 1813. During the final year and a half of the War of 1812, Dearborn led American forces in New York City and Boston.After he retired from the military, Dearborn lived in Boston. He was an unsuccessful candidate for governor of Massachusetts in 1817. In 1822, he entered the final chapter in his long record of service to the U.S. government. Appointed minister to Portugal, he spent almost two years in Lisbon before retiring to Roxbury, Massachusetts, where he died on June 6, 1829, at the age of 78.Bunker Hill Veterans in the HouseHenry Dearborn was not the only future U.S. Representative to participate in the Battle of Bunker Hill. Colonel John Paterson, who had been born in New Britain, Connecticut, but later represented New York in the House in the 8th Congress (1803–1805), was there. As was Artemas Ward, one of the first Major Generals of the U.S. Army, who issued the orders to defend Bunker Hill. Ward represented a Massachusetts district in the House for two terms between 1791 to 1795. Finally, William Eustis of Massachusetts had served as a physician at the battle and later held a seat in the House for parts of four nonconsecutive terms. Eustis died in February 1825, only four months before the fiftieth anniversary of the Battle of Bunker Hill.At least one additional future House Member had been present near the Battle of Bunker Hill in 1775. About 10 miles away from the fighting, from a hill at his home in Braintree, Massachusetts, a seven-year-old John Quincy Adams saw smoke and fire in the distance, heard the cannon volleys, and feared his family—especially his father John Adams, a leading revolutionary—was in danger of reprisals from British soldiers. After serving as President from 1825 to 1829, Adams held a seat in the House for 17 years, from 1831 until his death in 1848, capping a distinguished career in public service.50 Years after Bunker HillOn June 17, 1825, 74-year-old Henry Dearborn traveled to Charlestown to attend the ceremony commemorating the fiftieth anniversary of the Battle of Bunker Hill. That day, a large crowd watched as assembled dignitaries symbolically initiated construction of a planned 221-foot-tall granite obelisk to memorialize the battle. The French hero of the American revolution, the Marquis de Lafayette, who was in the final months of his yearlong tour of the United States, helped lay the cornerstone of the monument, which was later completed in 1843.Representative Daniel Webster of Massachusetts addressed the crowd. A rising star in the House, Webster was chair of the House Judiciary Committee and would later serve in the U.S. Senate and twice as U.S. Secretary of State. His speech praised the heroism, initiative, and achievements of the defenders of Bunker Hill and underscored the legacy of the battle, which he said set the stage for the founding of the nation and its great democratic experiment in self-government. Several lines from Webster’s 1825 address are enshrined in the House Chamber today:Let us develop the resources of our land, call forth its powers, build up its institutions, promote all its great interests, and see whether we also, in our day and generation, may not perform something worthy to be remembered.In 1775, Dearborn and others had helped plant the seeds of American democracy on the battlefield at Bunker Hill overlooking the Charles River in Massachusetts. Two hundred and fifty years later, in Washington, DC, the U.S. Capitol sits perched on a different hill within sight of a different river, the Potomac. But inside the grand domed building, the House of Representatives remains a place for Americans to strive to “perform something worthy to be remembered,” as Webster said, while enjoying the civil and political rights that Henry Dearborn had fought to guarantee.Sources: Annals of Congress, House, 3rd Cong., 1st sess. (21 January 1794): 1122–25; Annals of Congress, House, 3rd Cong., 1st sess. (13 February 1794): 1222; Annals of Congress, House, 4th Cong., 1st sess. (11 April 1796): 905–907; Annals of Congress, House, 4th Cong., 1st sess. (30 April 1796): 1282, 1291–1292; Annals of Congress, House, 4th Cong., 2nd sess. (23 January 1797): 1945–1971, 2332; Annals of Congress, House, 4th Cong., 2nd sess. (10 February 1797): 2113–2122; Annals of Congress, House, 4th Cong., 2nd sess. (2 March 1797): 2349–2352; Military Peace Establishment Act, 2 Stat. 132 (1802); Office of the Historian, U.S. House of Representatives, The People’s House: A Guide to Its History, Spaces, and Traditions (Washington, DC: Government Publishing Office, 2025); Boston Patriot and Daily Chronicle, 8 June 1829; Connecticut Courant (Hartford), 28 June 1825; Henry Dearborn, An Account of the Battle of Bunker Hill (Philadelphia: Harrison Hall, 1818); Lloyd A. Brown and Howard H. Peckham, eds., Revolutionary War Journals of Henry Dearborn, 1775–1783 (New York, Da Capo Press: 1971); Theodore J. Crackel, Mr. Jefferson’s Army: Political and Social Reform of the Military Establishment, 1801–1809 (New York: New York University Press, 1987); Harry L. Coles, “Dearborn, Henry,” American National Biography, vol. 6 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999): 299–301; Thomas Egleston, The Life of John Paterson, Major-General in the Revolutionary Army (New York, G.P. Putnam’s Sons: 1894); Richard Alton Erney, The Public Life of Henry Dearborn (New York: Arno Press, 1979); Daniel Goodwin Jr., The Dearborns; A Discourse Commemorative of the Eightieth Anniversary of the Occupation of Fort Dearborn, and the First Settlement at Chicago (Chicago: Fergus Printing Company, 1884); Nathaniel Philbrick, Bunker Hill: A City, a Siege, a Revolution (New York: Penguin Press, 2013); Alexander S. Twombly, ed., Daniel Webster’s First Oration at Bunker Hill (New York: Silver Burdett and Company, 1897); Henry Wagstaff, ed., The Papers of John Steele, vol. 1 (Raleigh, NC: Edwards & Broughton Printing Company,1924).
The Weight of Liberty: Washington’s Legacy and His Post-Presidency Worries — History is Now Magazine, Podcasts, Blog and Books | Modern International and American history
George Washington is often remembered as the figurehead of the American Revolution. The first President of the United States and Commander and Chief. His leadership was absolutely instrumental in our nation’s founding, his Presidency has continued to be seen as a guiding light among many leaders tod
Edition for Educators—Career Day | US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives
What do you want to be when you grow up? That seemingly simple question has inspired generations of students to think about their future and dream big. In elementary and middle school, many teachers host “career day,” where parents and guardians share with a class what led them into their current occupations. In high school and college, guidance counselors stand ready to help students find a career that seems to fit their talents and interests.Career day traditionally features a mix of occupations: lawyers, doctors, nurses, teachers, mechanics, scientists, and other professions. Only on a rare occasion, however, is a student presented with the possibility of becoming a United States Representative—fewer than 12,000 people have served in the House since 1789. Although students can study political science, there is no one path to a career in elected office. The fact that lawmakers come from a variety of backgrounds is perhaps best exemplified in the U.S. House of Representatives. While most Members have studied law, others have been journalists, athletes, teachers, actors, and farmers.The following Edition for Educators highlights the range of careers that Members have held prior to their election to Congress. Often, their backgrounds and unique career paths have helped them better understand their constituents and more accurately represent their interests in Congress.JournalismSeveral Members of Congress entered politics after a career in journalism. Speaker James G. Blaine of Maine edited the Kennebec Journal before joining the House, while Speaker Schuyler Colfax of Indiana owned and edited the St. Joseph Valley Register.Oral History Clip: Reporter, Helen Delich Bentley of Maryland Listen to a clip from The Honorable Helen Delich Bentley of Maryland who worked as a reporter for the Baltimore Sun.Historical Highlight: Radio Broadcaster, Clem McSpadden of Oklahoma After serving in World War II, Clem McSpadden embarked upon two separate careers: public broadcasting and politics. McSpadden worked as a radio broadcaster and then entered state politics in Oklahoma before winning election to the House. While a Member of Congress, McSpadden regularly returned home to Oklahoma and announced rodeo contests.FarmingMany Members of Congress have come from rural backgrounds or tended the land themselves.Oral History Clip: Jill Lynette Long Thompson of Indiana Listen to a clip from The Honorable Jill Lynette Long Thompson, who explains how her dislike of farm chores helped jumpstart her interest in politics.Historical Highlight: Lettuce Farmer, Dalip Saund of CaliforniaDalip Saund of California first won election to Congress in 1956, after serving as a judge in California’s Imperial Valley where he also owned a lettuce farm. Saund had been born in India and earned a PhD in mathematics from the University of California, Berkeley, but after learning that British authorities back home had been keeping track of his “anti-British utterances in America,” he moved to southern California near a community of other Indian immigrants and took up farming. Because of racial prejudice at the time, Saund’s career options were limited and state law prevented him from owning or leasing farmland.Business OwnershipRepresentatives have brought experiences running businesses large and small to the halls of Congress.Historical Highlight: Merchant, Benjamin Turner of North Carolina Born in 1830 in North Carolina, Benjamin Sterling Turner was taken by his enslaver to Alabama, where he would eventually be emancipated by Union troops in the midst of the Civil War. After the war, Turner remained in Selma, where he built up a livery stable and became a merchant. In 1870, he won election to the 42nd Congress (1871-1873).Historical Highlight: Circus Owner, James A. Haley of Florida In 1933, World War I veteran James A. Haley became the general manager of the Ringling Brothers and Barnum & Bailey Circus. Despite a disastrous big top fire in 1944, Haley continued to run the circus until 1948, when he won a seat in Florida’s state house of representatives to which he was reelected in 1950. Haley was then elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1953. Haley often joked that he was the one of the best trained Members of Congress, claiming: “I came from the greatest show on earth to the big sideshow.”MilitaryQuite a few individuals have won election to Congress after serving accomplished careers in the armed forces.Historical Highlight: General Ben Butler of Massachusetts Benjamin Franklin Butler was a lawyer who unsuccessfully ran for governor of Massachusetts in 1859. After the Civil War began, Butler successfully petitioned to be appointed as a general. Over the course of the war, Butler served in various roles, but it was his term as military governor of New Orleans that garnered him a national reputation. Butler’s popularity in the North, as well as his support from Radical Republicans, helped him win election to the House in 1867.Historical Highlight: General Joseph Warren Keifer of Ohio J. Warren Keifer’s military service helped launch his political career, which led to him eventually becoming Speaker of the House. Trained as a lawyer, Keifer rose through the ranks during the Civil War to become a major general. Returning to Ohio after the conflict, Keifer won election to the 45th Congress (1877–1879) and later served as Speaker during the 47th Congress (1881–1883).ArtistryThe ability to turn a phrase and command public attention has long been an advantage for those seeking election to the United States Congress.Collection Object: Actor, William Patrick Connery Jr. of Massachusetts William Patrick Connery Jr. dabbled in several professions before he became a Representative from Massachusetts. He acted, worked with an electric company, and manufactured candy. He certainly was not camera shy, as evidenced in this singing performance captured in the House.Blog: Author, Thomas Forrest of Pennsylvania Thomas Forrest served in the Revolutionary War, but beforehand he wrote one of the earliest American comedic operettas. You can read about the story of a fascinating man who enjoyed practical jokes, served in the House, and who fought alongside General George Washington here.AthleticsA few Members of the House got their start in the public eye by competing in professional sports or representing the United States in the Olympic games.Collection Object: Baseball Player, Jim Bunning of Kentucky Before he became a Member of the House of Representatives, Jim Bunning had a long and productive career in Major League Baseball. So productive, in fact, that he was inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum in Cooperstown, New York.Collection Object: Olympic Sprinter, Ralph Harold Metcalfe of Illinois Ralph Harold Metcalfe ran track at Marquette University and won silver twice at the Olympics in the men’s 100 meter race. In Berlin in 1936, it was Metcalfe who came in second to Jesse Owens. Metcalfe later won election to Congress and helped found the Congressional Black Caucus.Other Featured CareersBlog: Iron Worker, Frank Buchanan of Illinois Frank Buchanan was an iron worker turned Representative from Illinois who found himself in trouble shortly before the United States entered World War I. Read about his story here.Blog: Teacher, Shirley Chisholm of New York Shirley Anita Chisholm was a public school teacher and worked for more than a decade as an educator before she entered Congress. Already a larger-than-life presence in the classroom, Chisholm made effective use of both the House Floor and the national stage. Read more about her story here and here.Blog: President, John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts John Quincy Adams was a former President who decided to return to public service and run for the House of Representatives, a feat yet to be repeated in the People’s House. Read about his return to elected office in the House of Representatives here.Whether they taught public school or played baseball professionally, the diverse array of occupations practiced by these lawmakers helped prepare them to serve the public in the House of Representatives. These careers, of course, are just a small fraction of those represented in the People’s House.Explore Members' more unique pre-Congressional careers: sickle maker, cowboy, candy maker, oleomargarine manufacturer, and fire-fighting equipment salesman.This is part of a series of blog posts for educators highlighting the resources available on History, Art & Archives of the U.S. House of Representatives. For lesson plans, fact sheets, glossaries, and other materials for the classroom, see the website's Education section.