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Tackling the US prison system The US prison system has long been an issue of concern for many Americans. Despite the US having only 5% of the world’s population, it is home to 25% of the world’s prisoners. The US prison population has grown exponentially in recent years and this has been largely attributed to the ‘War on Drugs’, which has seen the introduction of mandatory minimum sentencing guidelines. This has resulted in a large number of non-violent offenders being incarcerated for lengthy periods of time. There have been a number of initiatives to address this issue, such as the bipartisan First Step Act which was signed into law in 2018. The Act seeks to reduce the number of federal prisoners, reform sentencing guidelines and expand rehabilitation programs. There is also growing support for the decriminalization of certain drugs such as marijuana. These measures are a step in the right direction, however much more needs to be done to reform the US prison system.
Best of the Blog in 2024 | US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives
In 2024, the Office of the Historian and the Office of Art and Archives published 34 blog posts exploring the rich history of the House of Representatives. This year’s submissions covered a range of topics, including deep dives on the portrait of pathbreaking California Representative Dalip Singh Saund, the curious career of Pennsylvania Representative Thomas Forrest, and the history and development of the House Chamber’s electronic voting system.Additionally, the oral history program at the Office of the Historian celebrated its twentieth year of operation with posts looking back at two decades of interviews with remarkable Members of Congress, staff, and family members.House curators and archivists continued to update readers about new additions to the House Collection and Records Search. House historians maintained the long-running Edition for Educators series for teachers and students and provided an annual update for students competing in National History Day. The office also expanded its educational series by offering closer looks at two major events in modern House history: the 1954 shooting in the House Chamber and the first lying-in-honor ceremony in the Capitol. Finally, readers more inclined to statistics over narrative were treated to an updated snapshot of the House by its numbers.As the 118th Congress prepares to adjourn sine die, we’re featuring six of our favorite blog posts from the past year.An Empire or a Gavel: Speaker Thomas Brackett Reed’s Opposition to the Spanish-American WarIn late March 1898, Republican Speaker Thomas Brackett Reed of Maine found himself in an unfamiliar position. Known as “Czar Reed” for his iron-fisted control over the legislative process, Reed now struggled to maintain the direction of the House’s agenda as war loomed on the horizon. For months, lawmakers on Capitol Hill had worried as Spain suppressed a war for independence in Cuba, which Madrid controlled as a territory. By the spring, many in Congress sought to confront the European monarchy over its actions in the Caribbean. But Reed fiercely opposed conflict with Spain, and generally resisted America’s larger imperial ambitions overseas. A loyal Republican and the leader of his party in Congress, Reed felt he had certain obligations to adhere to party orthodoxy, even in the rare event that he disagreed with it. As the drumbeat for war grew louder in the GOP, Reed confronted an issue that pitted his party loyalty against his personal convictions and his duties as Speaker of the House.The Records of a Growing Nation: Expansion and Reform (1801-1861)As the United States grew in size and population, it grappled with the challenges of its expansion. Congress began the complicated process of dividing and parceling out land, much of it already inhabited, contended with pro- and antislavery activism, and started to determine what kinds of support and relief the government should provide its citizens. This second entry in an ongoing series about House documents focuses on a few of the most prominent issues facing Congress during the antebellum era. This overview invites readers to learn more about this turbulent period with these records from the House of Representatives.“A Favored Son of America”: the Marquis de Lafayette’s 1824 House ReceptionOn December 10, 1824, two dozen U.S. Representatives accompanied a 67-year-old French nobleman named Marie-Joseph-Paul-Yves-Roch-Gilbert du Motier through the streets of Washington, DC, on the way to the U.S. Capitol. The reception scheduled for that day marked the first time the U.S. House had formally hosted a foreign dignitary—hundreds of others, including many heads of state, would follow over the next two centuries. But in that initial instance the guest was not the leader or a representative of any overseas government. In the United States, du Motier was better known as the Marquis de Lafayette, a French volunteer and general in the American Revolution who had served under George Washington in the Continental Army and whose leadership was pivotal to securing America’s independence five decades earlier. An entire lifetime had come and gone since the Revolution. The upstart democracy Lafayette had helped seed in the eighteenth century had, by the third decade of the nineteenth, grown into a force all its own.The House's Plot to Steal a LibraryIn June 1974, as the U.S. House of Representatives opened an impeachment investigation into President Richard M. Nixon amid the Watergate scandal, a construction crew was hard at work on a massive new building for the Library of Congress in the 100 block of Independence Avenue in Southeast, Washington, DC—near the heart of Capitol Hill. Congress had authorized the building in 1965 to help alleviate overcrowding across the library complex. Only steps away, a group of Representatives took stock of the House’s own office space and decided that it was overcrowded as well, packed with thousands of Member, committee, and support staff. Perhaps what the House required was a new office building. And perhaps the new library facility was just the space the House needed.The History of Member Pins“The first day I was here, I was just walking around,” newly minted Representative Roger Marshall reported. “Nobody even noticed me. Then I put this on and all of a sudden, the eyes started trailing me.” Marshall came to Congress in 2017 and quickly learned what gets you noticed on the Hill: the official, Members-only lapel pin. Like a hall pass, the little metal disc has identified Representatives to police, Members, and others in the know for 50 years. But for the previous 180 years, the House saw no need for them. What happened to make Member pins a must-have in Congress?Not Horsing Around: Speaker Sedgwick Attempts to Rein in the PressOn December 22, 1800, the U.S. House of Representatives held a somewhat routine debate on whether to examine the conduct of Mississippi’s territorial governor. As debate dragged on, Democratic Republican William Charles Cole Claiborne of Tennessee declared that he had heard enough, and recommended the House move swiftly to punish the governor, surmising that “a delay of justice is often equal to a denial of it.” Claiborne’s remarks struck a chord with a man named James Lane who watched the proceedings from the gallery. In a show of support, Lane began clapping. Lane’s disruption sparked an immediate rebuke from Speaker Theodore Sedgwick of Massachusetts, who ordered the House Sergeant at Arms to remove Lane from the chamber. The clapping may have lasted a split second, but it set in motion a lengthy series of events that underscored the power of the Speaker and House leadership’s contentious relationship with the press. It also, apparently, caused James Lane to lose his horse.Be sure to follow the blog in 2025 for more House history, art, and records!
Fireside Friday, January 10, 2025 – A Collection of Unmitigated Pedantry
Hey folks, Fireside this week! I'm currently working on a post "On the Gracchi" taking a somewhat darker look at everyone's favorite Roman reformers (though hardly the same black takedowns Alexander and Cleopatra got) , which will hopefully be ready for next week. Trustworthy Librarian Ollie helping me work on my book sorting solution, also…
Development of the Industrial United States and the Emergence of Modern America (1870–1931), Part II: The Records of Progress | US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives
As the United States expanded, developed, and went to war overseas, Americans and their government responded to the rapid changes happening in the country and abroad. Citizens petitioned Congress for consumer protections, better working conditions, assistance for vulnerable people, voting rights, and conservation of the country’s natural landscapes. The government responded with reforms—both welcome and unwelcome, depending on one’s perspective. Learn more about how the country navigated the shift from the unregulated excess of the Gilded Age to social and political reforms of the Progressive Era with these records from the House of Representatives.Transcriptions and downloadable PDFs of these records are available at the links below.Discussion Questions:How did the country’s workforce change during this period?Identify at least three areas that Americans worked to reform during this period. Are Americans still working to bring about change in these areas today?How did changes in communication, transportation, and industry during this period bring about government reform?What methods did Americans use to advocate for changes for themselves and for others?What connections can you make between this period and today?Is what is considered progress by some always positive for everyone? Why or why not?1890, Give Us Pure Lager Beer PetitionThis petition was sent to the House from citizens of Avon, New York, who supported H.R. 8522, a bill that defined the required ingredients of lager beer. The petitioners warned that “adulterants such as corn, rice, starch, glucose and other substitutes,” when used instead of malt and hops, may affect the purity of beer, as well as the drinker’s health. The petition is an example of the demand for more government regulation of consumer goods that culminated in the passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906.1893, John Muir Yosemite LetterA founding member of the Sierra Club, John Muir served as president from its inception in 1892 until his death in 1914. Muir and his fellow club members petitioned Congress to preserve Yosemite National Park’s boundaries when California Representative Anthony Caminetti proposed opening it up to farming and mining in 1893. The petition includes a four-point list detailing the damage to the park if it were developed, along with a map illustrating the reduced size advocated by the legislation. Congress eventually sided with the conservationists and decided to maintain the original boundaries for the time being.1900, Anti-Lynching PetitionPetitioners from New Jersey protested the lynching of African Americans in the South. The petition was submitted on the House Floor on February 21, 1900, by Representative George Henry White of North Carolina, the only African American in Congress at the time, in support of H.R. 6963, anti-lynching legislation he introduced on January 20, 1900. White left at the end of that Congress, and it was nearly three decades before another African American served in Congress.1902, Letter Supporting Anti-Injunction and Anti-Conspiracy LegislationThe Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen, Bradford Lodge No. 288, in McKean County, sent this petition to Congressman Joseph C. Sibley of Pennsylvania in 1902. The union encouraged the consideration of H.R. 11060, which would limit the meaning of the word “conspiracy” and the use of “restraining orders and injunctions.” As a labor union for railroad employees, the group had a vested interest in legislation that protected its right to organize and protest, which had been curtailed by allegations of civil conspiracy and court ordered injunctions against strikes and boycotts.1912, Child Labor PhotographIn 1908, Lewis Wickes Hine began documenting the conditions of young workers in Washington, DC. The notation Hine typed on the back of the photograph observed that the three boys were about 9 years old. One newsboy was a “chronic truent [sic],” and another had already been working as a newsboy since the age of 6. Their work required them to rise early and work long days, until all their papers were sold. Hine’s documentary photographs, often depicting gritty, true-to-life scenes, made their way into the investigative files of the Committee on the District of Columbia to bolster proposed legislation that would ban child labor in the District.1917, Student Resolution for ProhibitionIn 1917, a group of high school students from Flemington, New Jersey, submitted a resolution supporting a bill introduced by Congressman Asbury Lever in support of the prohibition of alcohol to conserve resources for the impending war. H.R. 4961 included the “limitation, regulation, or prohibition of the use of foods, food materials, or feeds in the production of alcohol.” Although the bill became the Lever Food and Fuel Control Act and was signed into law on August 10, 1917, nationwide Prohibition would not take effect until 1920.1919, House Joint Resolution 1 for Women’s SuffrageH.J. Res. 1 proposing an amendment to the Constitution extending voting rights to women was introduced in the House on May 19, 1919, and referred to the House Committee on Woman Suffrage. H.J. Res. 1 passed the House on May 21, 1919, followed by the Senate on June 4. The amendment achieved ratification in three-fourths of the states, and the U.S. Secretary of State certified it as the 19th Amendment to the Constitution on August 26, 1920, allowing women nationwide to head to the polls that November.1927, Funds for a Veterans’ HospitalThis petition, a concurrent resolution from the state legislature of Indiana, urges the U.S. Congress to establish a hospital for veterans within the state. The resolution argues that, “As Indiana is the center of population of the United States, a nucleus of the agricultural and industrial elements, the greatest railroad center of the world, and easily accessible by highways,” a veterans’ hospital would serve the area well. After the creation of the Veterans Administration, a health facility serving veterans opened in Indiana in 1932.Interested in more records from this era?1886, Postcards to Label Oleomargarine1886, Resolution to Create a Bureau of Labor for Women1875, Railway Joint Tariff1879, Letter against the Comstock Actca. 1890, Petition against Obscene Literature1894, Normal and Industrial Schools Billca. 1902, Petition for National Appalachian Forest Reserve1902, Resolution on Enforcement of the 14th Amendment1902, Higher Education for People Who Are Blind1905, Letter to Amend the Interstate Commerce Act1906, Report on Chicago Stock Yards1908, Supporting a Child Labor Bill for DC1910, Letter to Julius Kahn on Establishing a Children’s Bureau1910, Letter in Favor of a Children’s Bureau1911, Support for a National Archives Building1915, Letter Regarding Mount Baker1916, Letter for National Park Service1917, Urging Prohibition During Wartime1917, Letter against Prohibition1918, Maternity and Infancy Hygiene Bill1922, Red Record of Lynching Map1924, Letter against Child Labor AmendmentRead the first part of this blog, “Development of the Industrial United States and the Emergence of Modern America (1870–1931), Part I: The Records of Power,” here.This is part of a blog series about records from different eras of U.S. history.
Collections: On the Gracchi, Part I: Tiberius Gracchus – A Collection of Unmitigated Pedantry
This week, we're going to talk a bit about the brothers Tiberius (trib. 133) and Gaius (trib. 123-2) Gracchus, the famous Roman reformers of the late second century. There's actually a fair bit to say about both of them, so we're going to split this treatment over two weeks, talking about Tiberius this week and…
Edition for Educators—Shirley Chisholm of New York | US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives
Since the First Congress opened in 1789, more than 11,000 people have served in the U.S. House of Representatives. Most served capably for a few terms and returned to their communities. But some lawmakers have left towering legacies and are remembered for their legislative prowess, path-breaking careers, and bold personalities. These Members of Congress, including powerful Speakers of the House, strong-willed legislators, trailblazing Representatives, and policy specialists, qualify as “Giants of the House.”Fiercely independent, Shirley Chisholm broke barriers for both women and Black Americans as the Congresswoman from Brooklyn, New York. She entered the House in the 91st Congress (1969–1971) and quickly challenged convention on Capitol Hill. Initially assigned to the Committee on Agriculture, she rejected the seat and appealed to Speaker John W. McCormack of Massachusetts and the Democratic Caucus before receiving a new seat on the Veterans’ Affairs Committee. She also made it a point to employ young women, Black and White, in key leadership positions in her congressional office at a time when many were relegated to secretarial positions with little hope of significant advancement.Throughout her career, Chisholm challenged leadership and spoke out about challenging issues—discrimination, abortion, and war. Chisholm embraced her national profile, “I think my role is to break new ground in Congress.”Chisholm’s boldness unsettled many of her colleagues, some of whom occasionally cautioned the Congresswoman that she risked losing re-election. In her memoir, Chisholm countered, “Sometime [sic] somebody has to start trying to change things, start to say something, do something, be politically expendable.” Despite her own early prediction that she might be in Congress “only six or eight years at most,” Chisholm served seven terms, secured a coveted seat on the Rules Committee, earned a role in party leadership, and made a historic run for the Democratic nomination for President.This month’s Edition for Educators highlights the historic career of Representative Shirley Chisholm of New York, the first Black woman elected to Congress.From the Classroom to the House ChamberPEOPLE PROFILE—Representative Shirley Chisholm of New York The first African-American Congresswoman, Shirley Chisholm represented a U.S. House of Representatives district centered in Brooklyn, New York. First elected in 1968, Chisholm was catapulted into the national limelight by virtue of her race, gender, and an outspoken personality that she balanced with deft skill as a political insider. Four years later, in 1972, she campaigned for the Democratic presidential nomination. From her seat on the powerful Rules Committee, “Fighting Shirley,” as she was known, moved into Democratic leadership and advocated for increased federal spending and expanded programs to help low-income and working-class Americans. “I am the people’s politician,” she once told the New York Times. “If the day should ever come when the people can’t save me, I’ll know I’m finished. That’s when I’ll go back to being a professional educator.”BLOG—Unbought and Unbossed Shirley Chisholm was on the fence about running for Congress when a woman came to her Brooklyn apartment. The visitor, a poor mother, said that she and her friends wanted Chisholm to run. “She gave me a dirty envelope containing $9.62 in nickels, dimes and quarters that they had raised and promised that if I ran they would sponsor fund-raising affairs every Friday night to help finance my campaign,” Chisholm told Ebony. After the woman left, Chisholm sat down, took off her glasses, and cried.It was her first campaign contribution.HISTORICAL HIGHLIGHT—The First African-American Woman Elected to Congress On this date, at the opening of the 91st Congress (1969–1971), Shirley Anita Chisholm of New York became the first African-American Congresswoman. Trained as a school teacher, Chisholm served two terms in the New York state legislature before winning election in November 1968 to a newly created congressional district in Brooklyn. The only woman among the first-term class of lawmakers in the 91st Congress, Chisholm took the House by storm. “I have no intention of just sitting quietly and observing,” she said. “I intend to focus attention on the nation’s problems.”RECORD—Shirley Chisholm Oath of Office Representative Shirley Chisholm of New York signed this oath of office card on January 21, 1969. Representatives take the verbal oath of office en masse on the first day of each new Congress. Beginning in the 80th Congress (1947–1949), Members have also reaffirmed their commitment by signing oath of office cards. The cards are filed with the Clerk of the House and become House records that are open to the public after 30 years.Representative Chisholm of New YorkESSAY—“To Fight Doubly Hard” This essay from Black Americans in Congress explores the trials and triumphs of the first Black women elected to Congress. The five women profiled in this section (Permanent Interests: 1965–1990) were trailblazers, working to pass significant legislation and rising through the ranks of party and House leadership. Several gained influential committee positions: Shirley Chisholm on Rules, Yvonne Burke on Appropriations, and Barbara Jordan on Judiciary. Burke also chaired the Select Committee on the House Beauty Shop, while Cardiss Collins became the first Black woman to chair a subcommittee when she headed the Manpower and Housing Subcommittee of the Committee on Government Operations in 1977. Collins later rose to ranking minority member of the same committee, then renamed the Committee on Government Reform and Oversight. Both Burke and Collins also were elected to terms as chair of the Congressional Black Caucus (CBC).Early in her congressional career, Chisholm spoke about the effort it took to make it to Congress. “My rise has been constantly fighting,” she explained. “And I have had to fight doubly hard because I am a woman. I am a very different sort of person than usually emerges on the political scene.”ORAL HISTORY—Representative Chisholm and the Women’s Rights Movement Muriel Morisey discusses Congresswoman Shirley Chisholm’s involvement in women’s rights organizations.BLOG—Guts, Stamina, Audacity: Shirley Chisholm’s House Career Shirley Chisholm, the charismatic and outspoken Brooklyn educator and politician, made history when she became the first African-American woman to serve in Congress in 1969. Small in stature, but with a larger-than-life persona, “Fighting Shirley” was a tireless advocate for her constituents, quotable and stylish and unyielding. Chisholm encapsulated the resolve of the civil rights movement of the 1960s and brought national attention to the issues she championed.Beyond the headlines and iconic reputation she built across party lines, the New York Representative had to fight just as hard within the House for the causes she supported. Run by an old guard resistant to change, the House in the late 1960s was not the most welcoming of institutions to new Members. But Chisholm’s political career embodied a spirit of independence and her 1968 campaign slogan, “Unbought and Unbossed,” challenged the status quo. During her initial run for Congress, Chisholm proudly remarked, “I have always spoken out for what I believe: I cannot be controlled.”ORAL HISTORY—“She Empowered Her Staff Enormously” Muriel Morisey recalls the relationship between Representative Shirley Chisholm and her staff.Leadership and OrganizationESSAY—The Rise of the Congressional Black Caucus As the number of African-American lawmakers serving in Congress grew, a long-desired movement to form a more unified organization among Black legislators coalesced. Frustrated that Black Representatives lacked a forum to discuss common concerns and issues, Charles Diggs proposed the organization of the Democratic Select Committee (DSC) at the opening of the 91st Congress (1969–1971). He maintained that the DSC would fill a significant void by fostering the exchange of information among the nine African Americans serving in Congress at the time, as well as between Black Representatives and House leadership. Newcomers Bill Clay, Louis Stokes, and Shirley Chisholm embraced the idea, and the organization grew in the 92nd Congress (1971–1973), when it changed its name to the Congressional Black Caucus. This essay from Black Americans in Congress explores the early days of the CBC and its founding membership.HISTORICAL DATA—Black Americans in Party Leadership Positions In 1977, Shirley Chisholm became the first Black woman to serve as Secretary of the Democratic Caucus after an unsuccessful campaign for the position of caucus chair. This chart provides a list of individuals in caucus and conference positions based on research conducted by the Congressional Research Service.ORAL HISTORY—“Give Your Chair to a Lady” Muriel Morisey recalls Representative Shirley Chisholm’s campaign to become Democratic Caucus chair.Presidential CandidateBLOG—“Catalyst for Change”: The 1972 Presidential Campaign of Representative Shirley Chisholm Since its first publication in 1951, Jet magazine had been on the forefront covering news and issues important to its African-American readership. Widely popular for its commentary on politics, culture, and the lives of everyday people, Jet posed a question in June 1971 that would soon prove prophetic: “Should a Black Politician Run for President?”Six months later, in January 1972, Chisholm formally announced her candidacy for President and worked to forge what she called a “union of the disenfranchised.” With limited funding and a small staff, she used her platform to advocate for federal aid programs, opposed the Vietnam War, and called to empower everyday voters. She developed a strategy to win delegates in key presidential primaries, and, if need be, was ready to continue her quest for the nomination into the July 1972 Democratic National Convention in Miami, Florida. But almost immediately, Chisholm faced opposition from other Democratic presidential hopefuls, prominent Black politicians, members of the CBC, and political rivals back home in her Brooklyn congressional district. Throughout the campaign, she dismissed criticism that her candidacy was self-serving or merely symbolic. “I am for real, and I am very serious about what I am doing.”Remembering Shirley ChisholmBLOG—Collection Spotlight: The Portrait of Shirley Chisholm The Shirley Chisholm portrait in the House Collection of Art and Artifacts—the most viewed painting in the House’s online Collections Search—is difficult to miss when you pass it in the Capitol. The subject looms large on the canvas, the background a bright, saturated blue. The House commissioned the portrait by artist Kadir Nelson as part of an initiative started at the turn of the 21st century to commemorate noteworthy former Members with significant legislative achievements or symbolic importance in House history who did not fall into the limited group who traditionally had portraits painted. Representative Chisholm of New York was part of this group—the first Black woman in Congress, taking her seat in 1969. She became nationally famous for her strong principles and willingness to stand up for them, earning the nickname “Fighting Shirley.”HOUSE COLLECTION—Featured Objects and ImagesAdditional ResourcesShirley Chisholm authored two books: Unbought and Unbossed in 1970, and The Good Fight in 1973. Her research collections can be found through Rutgers University Library. Brooklyn Colleges hosts a smaller collection on Chisholm’s historic campaign for the 1972 Democratic presidential nomination as part of the Shirley Chisholm Project documenting women’s grassroots activism in Brooklyn, New York.In addition, the Library of Congress has compiled a research guide on Shirley Chisholm.This is part of a series of blog posts for educators highlighting the resources available on History, Art & Archives of the U.S. House of Representatives. For lesson plans, fact sheets, glossaries, and other materials for the classroom, see the website's Education section.